Oman
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| Sultanate of Oman سلطنة عمان Salṭanat ʻUmān | ||||||
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| Anthem: Nashid as-Salaam as-Sultani | ||||||
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| Capital (and largest city) | Muscat 23°36′N 58°33′E / 23.6°N 58.55°E | |||||
| Official language(s) | Arabic | |||||
| Demonym | Omani | |||||
| Government | Islamic absolute monarchy | |||||
| - | Sultan | Qaboos bin Said Al Said | ||||
| - | Deputy Prime Minister | Fahd bin Mahmoud al Said[1] | ||||
| Establishment | ||||||
| - | Imamate established[2] | 751 | ||||
| - | Constitution | 1966 | ||||
| Area | ||||||
| - | Total | 309,550 km2 (70th) 119,498 sq mi | ||||
| - | Water (%) | negligible | ||||
| Population | ||||||
| - | 2009 estimate | 2,845,000[3] (139th) | ||||
| - | 2003 census | 2,341,000 | ||||
| - | Density | 9.2/km2 (219th) 23.8/sq mi | ||||
| GDP (PPP) | 2009 estimate | |||||
| - | Total | $74.431 billion[4] | ||||
| - | Per capita | $25,109[4] | ||||
| GDP (nominal) | 2009 estimate | |||||
| - | Total | $53.395 billion[4] | ||||
| - | Per capita | $18,013[4] | ||||
| HDI (2007) |  0.846[5] (high) (56th) | |||||
| Currency | Rial (OMR) | |||||
| Time zone | (UTC+4) | |||||
| - | Summer (DST) | (UTC+4) | ||||
| Drives on the | right | |||||
| ISO 3166 code | OM | |||||
| Internet TLD | .om | |||||
| Calling code | 968 | |||||
| 1 | Population estimate includes 693,000 non-nationals. | |||||
listen) oh-MAHN; Arabic: عمان ʻUmān), officially the Sultanate of Oman (Arabic: سلطنة عمان Salṭanat ʻUmān), is an Arab country in southwest Asia on the southeast coast of the Arabian Peninsula. It borders the United Arab Emirates on the northwest, Saudi Arabia on the west and Yemen on the southwest. The coast is formed by the Arabian Sea on the southeast and the Gulf of Oman on the northeast. The Madha and Musandam enclaves are surrounded by the UAE on their land borders, with the Strait of Hormuz and Gulf of Oman forming Mussandams coastal boundaries.In November 2010, The United Nations Development Programme's (UNDP) listed Oman as the most-improved nation in last 40 years from among 135 countries worldwide.[6]
Contents[hide] |
[edit] History
Main article: History of Oman
[edit] Stone Age
Wattayah, located in the governorate of Muscat, is the oldest known human settlement in the area and dates back to the Stone Age, making it around 5,000 years old.[citation needed] Archaeological remains have been discovered here from the Stone Age and the Bronze Age; findings have consisted of stone implements, animal bones, shells and fire hearths, with the latter dating back to 7615 BC as the oldest signs of human settlement in the area. Other discoveries include hand-moulded pottery bearing distinguishing pre-Bronze Age marks, heavy flint implements, pointed tools and scrapers.On a mountain rock-face in the same district, animal drawings have been discovered. Similar drawings have also been found in the Wadi Sahtan and Wadi Bani Kharus areas of Rustaq, consisting of human figures carrying weapons and being confronted by wild animals. Siwan in Haima is another Stone Age location and some of the archaeological finds have included arrowheads, knives, chisels and circular stones which may have been used to throw at animals.
[edit] Oman before Islam
Sumerian tablets refer to a country called Majan, a name believed to refer to Oman's ancient copper mines. Mazoon, another name used for the region, is derived from the word muzn, which means heavy clouds which carry abundant water. The present-day name of the country, Oman, is believed to originate from the Arab tribes who migrated to its territory from the Uman region of Yemen; many tribes settled in Oman making a living by fishing, herding or stock breeding and many present day Omani families are able to trace their ancestral roots to other parts of Arabia.
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From the 6th century BC to the arrival of Islam in the 7th century AD, Oman was controlled and/or influenced by three Persian dynasties, the Achaemenids, Parthians and Sassanids. Achaemenids in the 6th century BC controlled and influenced the Oman peninsula, most likely exerted from a coastal center such as Sohar. By about 250 BC the Parthian dynasty brought the Persian Gulf under their control and extended their influence as far as Oman, establishing garrisons in Oman because they needed to control the Persian Gulf trade route. In the 3rd century AD the Sasanids succeeded the Parthians and held the area until the rise of Islam four centuries later.[7]
[edit] The arrival of Islam
The Omanis were among the first people to embrace Islam.[8] The conversion of the Omanis is usually ascribed to Amr ibn al-As, who was sent by the prophet Muhammad around 630 AD to invite Jayfar and 'Abd, the joint rulers of Oman at that time, to accept the faith, in which he eventually succeeded. In accepting Islam, Oman became an Ibadhi state, ruled by an elected leader, the Imam. During the early years of the Islamic mission Oman played a major role in the Wars of Apostasy that occurred after the death of Muhammad and also took part in the great Islamic conquests by land and sea in Iraq, Persia and beyond. Oman's most prominent role in this respect was through the extensive trading and seafaring activities in East Africa and the Far East, particularly during the 19th century, when it propagated Islam to many of East Africa's coastal regions, certain areas of Central Africa, India, Southeast Asia and China. Since conversion to Islam Oman has been ruled by Umayyads between 661–750, Abbasids between 750–931, 932–933 and 934–967, Qarmatians between 931–932 and between 933–934, Buyids between 967–1053, Seljuks of Kirman between 1053–1154.[edit] The Portuguese colonization
The Portuguese occupied Muscat for a 140-year period 1508–1648, arriving a decade after Vasco da Gama discovered the seaway to India. In need of an outpost to protect their sea lanes, the Europeans built up and fortified the city, where remnants of their colonial architectural style still remain.Rebellious tribes drove out the Portuguese, but were pushed out themselves about a century later, in 1741, by the leader of a Yemeni tribe leading a massive army from various allied tribes, beginning the current line of ruling sultans. Excepting a brief Persian invasion in the late 1740s, Oman has been self governing ever since.
[edit] Oman and Gwadar
Main article: Gwadar
In 1783, Oman's Saiad Sultan, defeated ruler of Muscat, was granted sovereignty over Gwadar.[note 1][9] He was to continue this sovereignty via an appointed wali (or "governor"), after regaining control of Muscat and maintained close relations with the Emirs of Sindh. The Sultans of Muscat retained sovereignty over Gwadar until the 1950s. In 1955 Makran acceded to Pakistan and was made a district – although Gwadar, at the time, was not included in Makran. In 1958, Gwadar and its surrounding areas were returned by Muscat to Pakistan, and were given the status of Tahsil of Makran district.[note 2][10][edit] Oman and East African Empire
[edit] Dhofar rebellion
Main article: Dhofar Rebellion
The Dhofar Rebellion was launched in the province of Dhofar against the Sultanate of Muscat and Oman and Britain from 1962 to 1975. As the radical-leaning rebellion threatened to overthrow the Sultan's rule in Dhofar and produced disorder in other parts of Oman, Sultan Said bin Taimur was deposed by his son Qaboos bin Said, who introduced major social reforms to deprive the rebellion of popular support and modernised the state's administration. The rebellion ended with the intervention of Iranian Imperial ground forces and major offensives by the expanded Sultan of Oman's Armed Forces.[edit] Politics
Main article: Politics of Oman
Chief of state and government is the hereditary sultān, Qaboos bin Said Al Said, who appoints a cabinet called the "Diwans" to assist him. In the early 1990s, the sultan instituted an elected advisory council, the Majlis ash-Shura, though few Omanis were eligible to vote. Universal suffrage for those over 21 was instituted on 4 October 2003. Over 190,000 people (74% of those registered) voted to elect the 84 seats.[11]Two women were elected to seats. The country today has three women ministers Rawiyah bint Saud al Busaidiyah – Minister of Higher Education, Sharifa bint Khalfan al Yahya'eyah – Minister of Social Development and Rajiha bint Abdulamir bin Ali al Lawati – Minister of Tourism. There are no legal political parties nor, at present, any active opposition movement. As more and more young Omanis return from education abroad, it seems likely that the traditional, tribal-based political system will have to be adjusted.[12] A State Consultative Council, established in 1981, consisted of 55 appointed representatives of government, the private sector, and regional interests.
[edit] Military
 | This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding reliable references. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (July 2010) |
Main article: Sultan of Oman's Armed Forces
Oman's armed forces, officially known as the Sultan's Armed Forces (SAF), including Royal Household troops and foreign personnel, numbered 41,700 in 2002, consisting of: 25,000 personnel in the Royal Army of Oman (RAO), equipped with over 100 main battle tanks and 37 Scorpion tanks; 4,100 personnel in the Royal Air Force of Oman (RAFO) operating 40 combat aircraft, trainers, transports and helicopters; and 4,200 personnel in the Royal Navy of Oman (RNO) sailing 13 patrol and coastal vessels. Paramilitary units include the Tribal Home Guard (Firqats) of 4,000 personnel organized in small tribal teams, a Royal Oman Police (ROP) coast guard of 400, and a small ROP air wing. Funded directly by the Sultan, the elite Royal Household brigade, naval unit, and air unit number 6,400, including two special forces regiments. In 2008 Oman spent 7.7% of GDP on military expenditures.[13] According to Times Online, Oman is home to the world's only camel-backed bagpipe military band.[edit] Geography
Main articles: Geography of Oman and Geology of Oman
| Geography of Oman | |
|---|---|
| Coastline | 2,092 km |
| Bordering countries | Saudi Arabia, UAE and Yemen |
Oman's other exclave, inside UAE territory, known as Madha, located halfway between the Musandam Peninsula and the main body of Oman,[14] is part of the Musandam governorate, covering approximately 75 km2 (29 sq mi). Madha's boundary was settled in 1969, with the north-east corner of Madha barely 10 m (32.8 ft) from the Fujairah road. Within the Madha exclave is a UAE enclave called Nahwa, belonging to the Emirate of Sharjah, situated about 8 km (5 mi) along a dirt track west of the town of New Madha, consisting of about forty houses with a clinic and telephone exchange.[15]
[edit] Climate
Main article: Climate of Oman
Oman has a hot climate and scanty rainfall typical to other nations in the middle east. Annual rainfall in Muscat averages 100 mm (3.9 in), falling mostly in January. Dhofar is subject to the southwest monsoon, and rainfall up to 640 mm (25.2 in) has been recorded in the rainy season from late June to October.[citation needed] While the mountain areas receive more plentiful rainfall, some parts of the coast, particularly near the island of Masirah, sometimes receive no rain at all within the course of a year. The climate generally is very hot, with temperatures reaching 54 °C (129.2 °F) in the hot season, from May to September.| [hide]Climate data for Oman | |||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year |
| Average high °F (°C) | 81 (27) | 79 (26) | 84 (29) | 93 (34) | 102 (39) | 104 (40) | 100 (38) | 97 (36) | 97 (36) | 95 (35) | 86 (30) | 81 (27) | 91.6 (33.1) |
| Average low °F (°C) | 63 (17) | 63 (17) | 70 (21) | 75 (24) | 84 (29) | 88 (31) | 86 (30) | 82 (28) | 81 (27) | 75 (24) | 70 (21) | 64 (18) | 75.1 (23.9) |
| Precipitation inches (mm) | 0.5 (12.7) | 1 (25.4) | 0.598 (15.2) | 0.701 (17.8) | 0.299 (7.6) | 0 (0) | 0 (0) | 0 (0) | 0 (0) | 0 (0) | 0.299 (7.6) | 0.5 (12.7) | 3.898 (99) |
| Source: weather.com[16] | |||||||||||||
[edit] Flora and fauna
The greater monsoon rainfall in Dhofar and the mountains makes the growth there more luxuriant during summer; Coconut palms grow plentifully in the coastla plains of Dhofar and Frankincense grows in the hills, with abundant Oleander and varieties of Acacia.
The Al Hajar Mountains are a distinct ecoregion, the highest points in eastern Arabia with wildlife including the Arabian tahr.
Indigenous mammals include the Leopard, Hyena, Fox, Wolf, and Hare, Oryx and Ibex. Birds include the Vulture, Eagle, Stork, Bustard, Arabian Partridge, Bee Eater, Falcon and Sunbird. In 2001 Oman had nine endangered species of mammals and five endangered types of birds[citation needed] and nineteen threatened plant species. Decrees have been passed to protect endangered species, including the Arabian Leopard, Arabian Oryx, Mountain Gazelle, Goitered Gazelle, Arabian Tahr, Green Sea Turtle, Hawksbill Turtle and Olive Ridley Turtle, but UNESCO have de-listed the Oman Arabian Oryx sanctuary from the World Heritage list due to the government's decision to reduce the site to 10% of its former size.[17]
[edit] Administrative divisions
Main article: Regions and governorates of Oman
Oman is divided into nine subjects: five regions (mintaqah) and four governorates (muhafazah).[edit] Environment
Drought and limited rainfall contribute to shortages in the nation's water supply, so maintaining an adequate supply of water for agricultural and domestic use is one of Oman's most pressing environmental problems, with limited renewable water resources; 94% of available water is used in farming and 2% for industrial activity, with the majority sourced from fossil water in the desert areas and spring water in hills and mountains. Drinking water is available throughout the country, either piped or delivered.The soil in coastal plains, such as Salalah, have shown increased levels of salinity, due to over exploitation of ground water and encroachment by seawater in the water table. Pollution of beaches and other coastal areas by oil tanker traffic through the Strait of Hormuz and Gulf of Oman is also a persistent risk.
[edit] Demographics
Main article: Demographics of Oman
| Demographics of Oman | |
|---|---|
| Languages | Arabic, English |
| Religion | Islam |
| Ethnic groups | Arab, South Asian and African |
| Life expectancy | 73.13 years |
In Oman, about 50% of the population lives in Muscat and the Batinah coastal plain northwest of the capital; about 200,000 live in the Dhofar (southern) region, and about 30,000 live in the remote Musandam Peninsula on the Strait of Hormuz.
Some 600,000 foreigners live in Oman, most of whom are guest workers from Pakistan, Bangladesh, Egypt, India and the Philippines.
[edit] Religion
Around 75% of the population consists of Ibadhi, a form of Islam distinct from the Sunni and Shia denominations, 17% constitute Sunni Muslims, with Imami Shia Muslims and the Zikri forming the remaining 8% of the indiginous population,[18] originating from Bahrain, Iran and the Ahsa province of Saudi Arabia, integrating well with the community, concentrated in the capital area and along the northern coast.The Oman government does not keep statistics on religious affiliation, but most citizens are Muslims.[18] Non-Muslim religious communities individually constitute less than 5 percent of the population and include various groups of Hindus, Buddhists, Zoroastrians, Sikhs, Baha'is, and Christians. Christian communities are centered in the major urban areas of Muscat, Sohar, and Salalah and include Roman Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, and various Protestant congregations, organizing along linguistic and ethnic lines. More than fifty different Christian groups, fellowships, and assemblies are active in the Muscat metropolitan area, formed by migrant workers from South Asia, although there are small communities of ethnic Indian Hindus and Christians that have been naturalized.[citation needed]
[edit] Economy
Main article: Economy of Oman
| This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding reliable references. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (July 2008) |
| Economy of Oman | |
|---|---|
 | |
| Currency | Omani Riyal (R$, OMR) |
| Fiscal year | Calendar year |
| Central Bank | Central Bank of Oman |
| Stock Market | Muscat Stock Market |
Omani citizens enjoy good living standards, but the future is uncertain with Oman's limited oil reserves.[18] Other sources of income, agriculture and industry, are small in comparison and count for less than 1% of the country's exports, but diversification is seen as a priority in the government of Oman. Agriculture, often subsistence in its character, produces dates, limes, grains and vegetables, but with less than 1% of the country under cultivation Oman is likely to remain a net importer of food.
Since the slump in oil prices in 1998, Oman has made active plans to diversify its economy and is placing a greater emphasis on other areas of industry, such as tourism.
[edit] Oil and gas
Oil is extracted and processed by Petroleum Development Oman (PDO),with proven oil reserves holding approximately steady, although oil production has been declining.[19][20]Commercial export of oil began in 1967 and since Sultan Qaboos' accession to the throne in 1970, many more oil fields have been found and developed. In June 1999, PDO discovered a new oil field in southern Oman after drilling and testing three wells which demonstrated the commercial viability of the reservoir. This is the most significant find in five years.
Work is continuing on the RO 503.876 million (US$1.3 billion) oil refinery project in Sohar, which was due to go into operation in 2006 with a 116,400 barrels per day (18,510 m3/d) refining capacity, with the short to mid-term future of Oman resting on the project. In 2004 the Oman Oil Refinery was supplied with about 78,200 barrels per day (12,430 m3/d) for refining, while PDO began using steam injection technology in several wells to increase their productivity.
Natural gas has increased greatly in importance due to the exploitation of gas fields and the opening of a processing plant at Sur, on the coast south of Muscat.
[edit] Mineral resources
Oman's mineral resources include chromite, dolomite, zinc, limestone, gypsum, silicon, copper, gold, cobalt and iron. Several industries have grown up around them as part of the national development process which, in turn, have boosted the minerals sector's contribution to the nation’s GDP as well as providing jobs for Omanis. The mineral sector's operations include mining and quarrying, with several projects recently completed, including: an economic feasibility study on silica ore in Wadi Buwa and Abutan in the Wusta Region, which confirmed that there were exploitable reserves of around 28 million tonnes at the two sites; a feasibility study on the production of magnesium metal from dolomite ore; a draft study on processing limestone derivatives; a project to produce geological maps of the Sharqiyah Region; economic feasibility studies on the exploitation of gold and copper ores in the Ghaizeen area; a study on raw materials in the wilayats of Duqm and Sur for use in the Sultanate's cement industry; and a study on the construction of a new minerals laboratory at Ghala in the Governorate of Muscat.[edit] Industry
The industrial sector is a cornerstone of the Sultanate’s long-term (1996–2020) development strategy for diversifying the sources of national income and reducing dependence on oil; it is also capable of helping to meet Oman's social development needs and generate greater added value for national resources by processing them into manufactured products.The Seventh Five-Year Development Plan creates the conditions for an attractive investment climate, providing a strategy for the industrial sector aiming to develop the information technology and telecommunications industries. The Knowledge Oasis Muscat complex has been set up and expanded, and Omani companies are developing their technological potential through collaboration with various Japanese and German institutions.
There are industrial estates in Sohar, Sur, Salalah, Nizwa and Buraimi providing industries with the resources for expansion. Provision of Natural gas to the industrial estates in Sohar and Salalah, help to promote expansion of those industries reliant on large quantities of energy; tax exemptions are given as an incentive to encourage their expansion and development, with the industrial sector expected to contribute 15% to the country's GDP by 2020.[citation needed]
[edit] Development plans
Oman 2020, held in June 1995, has developed the following aims with regard to securing Oman's future prosperity and growth:
- To have economic and financial stability
- To reshape the role of the Government in the economy and to broaden private sector participation
- To diversify the economic base and sources of national income
- To globalize the Omani economy
- To upgrade the skills of the Omani workforce and develop human resources
[edit] Tourism
Main article: Tourism in Oman
Numerous forts and castles are included among Oman's cultural landmarks and, together with its towers and city walls, have historically been used as defensive bastions or look-out points, as well as the seats of administrative and judicial authority. There are over 500 forts, castles and towers in Oman, which, with a coastline of 1,700 km, needed them to protect it from potential invaders. The architectural styles vary, being determined by the architects who built them or the periods in which they were built.
In Arabic the traditional marketplace is called a Souq. Souq's can be found in many of the towns throughout the country. One of the oldest preserved Souqs in Oman is Muttrah, on the Corniche, comprising of a maze of pathways leading in and out of each other; gold and silver jewelry is found in abundance as well as numerous wooden carvings, ornaments and spices and traditional implements. Household goods make up the bulk of the Souq's ware, but browsing through some of the smaller shops can result in a lucky find for the persistent tourist. Today the Capital area also has a number of Western European-style Shopping Malls, mainly situated in Qurum, but also extending to the Al Khuwair area of Muscat, where a variety of shops, ranging from boutiques to chain stores, can be found[22]. The largest Mall in the country is the Muscat City Centre which includes a French Carrefour hypermarket.
Other popular tourist activities include sand skiing in the desert, scuba diving, rock climbing, trekking, surfing & sailing, cave exploration, bull fighting and camel races. The Muscat Festival, usually held during the months of Jan – Feb , is similar to the Dubai Shopping Festival, but smaller in scale, where traditional dances are held, temporary theme parks open, and concerts take place. Another popular event is The Khareef Festival held in Salalah, Dhofar, which is 1200 km from the capital city of Muscat, during the monsoon season (August) and is similar to Muscat Festival. During this latter event the mountains surrounding Salalah are popular with tourists as a result of the cool weather and lush greenery, rarely found anywhere else in Oman.[23]
[edit] Labour
The estimated workforce was 920,000 in 2002. A large proportion of the indigenous population were still engaged in subsistence agriculture or fishing. The skilled local labour force is small, and many of the larger industries depend on foreign workers from Pakistan, Bangladesh, the Philippines, India, and Sri Lanka. Oman's foreign workers send an estimated $30 billion annually to their Asian and African home states, more than half of them earning a monthly wage of less than US$400[24]. The largest foreign community is from the south Indian states of Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka or come from Maharashtra and the Punjab[25], representing more than half of entire workforce in Oman. Salaries for overseas workers are known to be far less than for Omani nationals, though still from two to five times higher than for the equivalent job in India.[26]The minimum working age for Omani citizens is 13, but this provision is not enforced against the employment of children in family businesses or on family farms. The minimum working age for foreign workers is 21. The minimum wage for non-professional workers was $260 per month in 2002. However, many classes of workers (domestic servants, farmers, government employees) are not required to receive the minimum wage and the government is not consistent in its enforcement of the minimum wage law. The private sector working week is 40 to 45 hours long, while government officials have a 35-hour working week.[citation needed]
[edit] Labour unions
Oman Law was amended during February 2010 to allow the formation of Labor unions. There are now approximately 70 Labour Unions within the Sultanate. The law forbids a strike for any reason. Collective bargaining is not permitted, however there exist labour-management committees in firms with more than 50 workers. These committees are not authorized to discuss conditions of employment, including hours and wages. The Labour Welfare Board provides a venue for grievances.[citation needed][edit] Inflation
As oil prices have risen to a record high, so has inflation. The government depends mostly on oil revenue, more than on tax returns from companies and other government-owned companies. The government is also Oman's largest employer, so the high interest that government gets increases the prices of food and construction equipment. The government did support the fuel prices so it doesn't increase the inflation and to make the price suitable for people on low wages.In 2006, government employee salaries were increased by 15%, placing Oman in the category of high-medium income countries.[citation needed] and a year after increase employees' were also increased in salaries so, employees with low wages have a higher increase that may go up to 48% and employees who earn more get a lesser increase in their salaries which end at 5%. The minimum wage has been changed from 120 Rial a month to 140 Rials because of high records of inflation driven by high prices of oil.[citation needed]
[edit] Transportation
Main article: Transport in Oman
[edit] Education
Main article: Education in Oman
Before 1970, only three formal schools existed in the whole country with less than 1000 students receiving education in them. Since Sultan Qaboos came to power in 1970, the government has given high priority to education to develop a domestic work force, which the government considers a vital factor in the country's economic and social progress. Today there are over 1000 state schools and about 650,000 students. In 1986, Oman's first university, Sultan Qaboos University, opened. Other post secondary institutions include 7 colleges of technology, 6 colleges of applied sciences (including a teacher's training college), a college of banking and financial studies, an institute of Sharia sciences, and several nursing institutes. Some 200 scholarships are awarded each year for study abroad.Pre-university education in Oman has three stages: primary, preparatory, and secondary. Six years of primary schooling are followed by preparatory school. Academic results of the preparatory exams determine the type of secondary education the student will receive.
Nine private colleges exist, providing 2-year posthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oman
